By Martha Rullman A red tailed hawk found on the ground, thin, weak, and bruised. A nesting bald eagle discovered near a park, disoriented and severely anemic, along with its mate found later in the same condition. A great horned owl that fell out of its nest to the ground, its two chicks in the nest sickened from the poisoned prey being fed to them by their parent…. These fox kits were poisoned by rodenticides in the food they were being fed by their parent. Photo by Alyssa Guiquinto of the Giaquinto Wildlife Center. These are just a a few examples of the kinds of wildlife casualties that are becoming increasingly common in both urban and rural areas, as the use of second generation anticoagulant rodenticides, known as SGARs, has increased in Vermont and throughout the northeast and the country. While wildlife rehabilitators are spending more time and resources treating raptors and other wildlife poisoned by SGARs, animals that are found and brought in to wildlife rehabilitators represent only a tiny fraction of animals in the wild that are being sickened and killed by these poisons. Raptors and other predators play a critical role in the ecosystem, helping to keep things in balance by naturally controlling rodent populations. When hawks, owls, foxes and other predator species decline due to poisoning, rodent populations can surge, leading to increased human-wildlife conflicts and greater demand for rodent control, perpetuating a "cycle of poison.” In the last decade, there has been a steady increase in the number of birds of prey coming into Tufts Wildlife Clinic with rodenticides in their systems. Necropsies of dead hawks and owls frequently reveal internal bleeding and high concentrations of these poisons in their systems. The results of a several studies done there revealed that 100 percent of the red-tailed hawks tested positive for exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides. Another study of 46 predators admitted to Cape Ann Wildlife Rehabilitation Center between 2022 and 2024, including birds of prey as well as foxes and coyotes, found that all of them had been poisoned by anticoagulant rodenticides. A species that has been gaining more attention as a result of increased in secondary poisoning from rodenticides in wildlife is fishers. The alarming decline in fisher populations in the northeast has been documented by biologists from the Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department. After their reintroduction in the 1950s, fisher populations in the Northeast gradually recovered from over trapping and habitat loss, but they have been steadily declining in the last two decades. In a study conducted in five Northeastern states, exposure rates to multiple anticoagulant rodenticides were the highest in Vermont, with 98% of fishers testing positive for multiple rodenticide compounds. Given the elusive and solitary nature of these animals, widespread population decline from chronic rodenticide exposure is indicative of how ubiquitous these poisons are in the environment. While rats may be the obvious animals targeted by rodenticides, there is a lasting ecological effect. As one of VMNH's education animals, this rat helps people understand the vital role of rodents in the food chain. Anticoagulant rodenticides indiscriminately kill animals by primary poisoning, when an animal is poisoned by ingesting the bait directly, or by secondary poisoning, when a poisoned animal is eaten by predator or scavenger. These poisons work by preventing blood from clotting, leading to a slow and painful death from internal bleeding. Since these chemicals work slowly and bioaccumulate, a rodent may feed at a bait station multiple times, and as it becomes weakened, it’s an easy target for a prey animal or scavenger. Poisoning ultimately leads to fatal hemorrhaging and organ failure, and a lethal dose typically occurs between four days to as long as two weeks after a rodent begins to feed on the bait. But sublethal poisoning from chronic rodenticide exposure is common in mid-ranking predators such as foxes, coyotes, and bobcats. As these animals immune systems are weakened, they become more vulnerable to disease such as mange and starvation, vehicle strikes, and low reproductive success. The poisoned bait is typically placed in bait boxes, but non-target species are also often victims of primary poisoning when they find and ingest bait that is found outside of the box. Rodents store their food as a survival mechanism, and the bait can easily be removed and cached in the environment, where other animals like birds, rabbits, squirrels, chipmunks, raccoons and opossums can find and ingest it. Invertebrates such as snails are also attracted to the bait and can easily get into bait boxes, and they can then be consumed by birds and other non target species. The bait box becomes a reliable source of food and shelter, and hawks have even been observed perched near bait boxes waiting for rodents to exit. Since the commercial sale of SGARs was banned by the EPA in 2015 due to safety concerns, their use by licensed pest control applicators continues to be permitted in every state except California, where a statewide bill was passed in 2020 banning their use with certain exceptions. In spite of the federal ban on retail sales, they have become the primary means of rodent control in the pest control industry. According to the Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources Pesticide Program, in 2022, around 95 percent of the rodent control treatment used by pest control companies was anticoagulant rodenticides. An understanding of the problem requires looking at the widescale and long term placement of bait box stations along buildings and around structures. Pest control companies restock these ubiquitous bait boxes on a monthly basis, allowing for continuous and indiscriminate poisoning of animals throughout a wide area. In addition, the pesticide industry’s standard practice uses aggressive marketing of long term contracts as an effective solution for business and property owners dealing with rodent problems. This business model has resulted in these extremely potent poisons becoming pervasive in the wildlife food chain. While public awareness of the problem is growing, this out of sight out of mind approach to pest management, along with a powerful pest control lobby in this country, which has influenced the outcome of legislation aimed at banning and restricting SGAR use, has created a silent ecological crisis. There are safer and more effective solutions to rodent control. A more humane and sustainable approach needs to take into account that predators and prey animals have evolved to coexist and have a right to do so. A business model that results in long term and widescale secondary poisoning of wildlife is not acceptable. To learn more and find out how you can get involved, here are some resources. Protect our Wildlife https://www.protectourwildlifevt.org/ Project Coyote https://projectcoyote.org/take-action-urge-vermont-lawmakers-to-restrict-deadly-rodenticides/ Sierra Club Vermont Chapter https://www.sierraclub.org/vermont/blog/2026/02/sierra-club-rodentcide-bill-h758-support-letter Raptors are the Solution https://raptorsarethesolution.org/

Several years ago, famed local wildlife rehabilitator, Fred Homer commented: "It's a bad time for barred owls when they are on the front page of the Reformer". What Fred meant was if there were enough people seeing owls out during the day to get a picture onto the front page of the local paper, those owls were working some extra shifts. Most effective hunting at night, a barred owl's sensitive hearing and silent flight combine to make them incredibly effective predators of rodents and other small animals. Even a covering of snow is not protection against this perfect combination of adaptations. The price that the wing and feather structure must pay to achieve this silence is speed and maneuverability. This makes daytime hunting a challenge to the owls. Their prey can see them coming before they get there and flee. When there is a thaw in the winter and snow melts and then refreezes, the snow develops a hard crust on the surface. Sometimes strong enough to support an adult human, sometimes almost strong enough to support us which makes walking in the woods very unpleasant. These conditions are even worse for the owl. The crust provides a solid barrier that even a large (2 pound) barred owl cannot break through. And the rodents are safe, the owl is hungry. Over the past week there has been a barred owl hanging around the overlook during daylight hours. At first we thought he'd been hit by a car and then wondered if there was a roadkill there that he was scavenging. (Unusual behavior for an owl, but winter is hard) Then we really looked. The south-facing hillside was clear of snow. It was the only place he could hunt unless some rodent made the very bad decision to come out from under the crust and run around on the surface. On the first day he looked pretty rough, being out in the rain didn't help. Two days later, he was still moving slow, but has improved a lot since then. Over the past few days we have noticed that he appears to be doing better and has not been there as regularly. As we have been paying so much attention and watching for him regularly we found an owl pellet. It was sitting on the railing as if to show us "I am eating". As the snow melts his options will increase and he can stop spending days alongside the road.

With spring finally finding us on top of Hogback Mountain, we are seeing a rush of spring time hallmarks that the lower elevations have been enjoying for weeks. Birdsong, green shoots and pussy willows to name a few. But wait, what IS a pussy willow? Are they buds? fruit? Some sort of tiny feline parasite? I am referring to the fuzzy little ovals that decorate the twigs of several smaller species of willow (Salix) in our region and around the world. The soft grey "fur" that covers them are where these structures and at least one species of willow get the cat-influenced name. Appearing in the chilly days of late winter or early spring, the fur serves the same purpose as the fur on any cat- protection from the cold. The pussy willow itself is the willow's catkin, or flower cluster. It is a flower we can easily miss, it will have no colorful petals, it does not advertise it's presence with a showy aroma. The willow flower doesn't need these things. Like a birch or beech tree the willow is wind pollinated and does not need to attract animals to aid in pollination. It's male flowers will push a multitude of stamens through the fuzz and spread pollen to the wind, hoping that the cloud will find a receptive female flower. Willow trees are a fairly common tree of wet areas and is considered a valuable plant for erosion control and water purification. Culturally, the plant has been important to humans for centuries as a wide-spread symbol of fertility and rebirth as well as a source of material goods (baskets, arrow shafts). Willow bark was also used medicinally around the world from ancient China to Greece to North America. It's pain-relieving Salicylic acid has been shown to be an anti-inflammatory and pain reliever and is the basis for aspirin's active ingredient. And at least here on our wind-swept mountain, it brings relief from the winter blues with a soft, fuzzy beauty that promises the warm, green days to come.

Last month the Museum met for our first book club discussion with Rachel Carson’s landmark work “Silent Spring”. We had a great turnout and some even better discussion! This month, we will be following Silent Spring with Barry Lopez’s “Of Wolves and Men”. As our Book Club facilitator, Mary Wright will tell you, “This one was Mike’s pick”. I was always interested in big predators; sharks were a focus in middle school and by my late teens that interest turned to wolves. In college, I was passed over for an internship working at the International Wolf Center with North American wolf aficionado L. David Mech and instead worked on a white-tailed deer study in The Chippewa National Forest in Minnesota. The main appeal for me (aside from live trapping adult deer) was that the study included keeping an eye on four wolf packs with radio-collared members, and performing CSI-style evaluations of any wolf-killed deer we came across. That was fascinating work. Upon finding a wolf kill site we would back track the chase. Looking at the footprints we could see where pack members came in and took turns harrying the deer; bits of hair and specks of blood showed points of contact eventually leading to well-fed wolves. One thing that was true at every kill I observed, by the time we found them there wasn’t much left. Some bones, scraps of hide and a ring of fur spread around the red snow were all that hadn’t been eaten. We know from more in-depth studies that even those remains would eventually end up in something’s stomach. Coyotes, ravens and eagles generally took second turn on a carcass with everything else that eats meat grabbing a free meal, down to beetles and chickadees. Wolves returning to Yellowstone have even shortened the dormant period of the Park’s bears because they can go to sleep later and wake up earlier by feeding on wolf kills. This was a fascinating experience and even though the wolf parts were minor compared to the full-time deer study, it kept my interest on wolves. Many years later I had the opportunity to work at the Wolf Conservation Center in South Salem, NY. The closest we got to the wolves in Minnesota was footprints and distant howls, at the WCC it was hands on. Their captive pack of wolves were education ambassadors and had been raised around people. As a result they were not afraid of us, and when they allowed it, could be interacted with. What I learned about captive wolves while I was there was that wolves play by wolf rules. Superficially they “speak dog” and their body language is very familiar to people who have been around dogs and for the most part means the same things. But I never felt like the wolves were focused on what we wanted like a dog can be. They were smart and strong and behaved more like house cats in their attitudes than house dogs. Those animals (and the ones who live there today) saw thousands of people each year and conveyed that essential independence in ways no book or screen-filtered experience could. Since the mid 1990’s wolves have returned to portions of the west and wolf/human interactions are occurring in states other than Minnesota. Human and predator interactions are even relevant in the northeast where our burly eastern coyote moves towards playing the role of wolf in our ecosystems and confirmed wolves shot in Maine and the Adirondacks indicate the true wolf may be on it’s way back. Unfortunately for the wolf, wherever it lives, this animal has become a political issue and strong opinions shout down science and emotional debates determine its fate. That’s the main topic of Barry Lopez’s book. Looking at the history of humans and wolves and by extrapolation, our relationships with large predators on a human-dominated landscape. It is hard to find an objective perspective in the area of wolves. Not only are wolves unreasonably hated by some, they are also unreasonably loved. Both sides casting them into roles that we imagine for them and have little to do with a real wolf as much as fulfilling our own ideas about wolves and the relationship between humans and nature. If you would like to participate in the discussion of “Of Wolves and Men” at the Museum on February 25th contact us and get reading! Wolves are an amazing and iconic animal who once called all of North America home and continue to be a presence in the imagination and even politics of our country.

Winter provides us with many opportunities that the other three seasons cannot. Skiing or cuddling in front of the wood stove may come to mind. For some of us a thin layer of fresh snow calls out for tracking. Traditionally a skill associated with hunters and wilderness rescue, tracking in the winter is a fun and active activity that anyone can enjoy. The Museum hosts or leads several tracking-focused activities each winter and they are always an adventure. If you want to start your tracking adventure this winter here are few tips: First, get prepared. 1. Get a good field guide that includes straddle and stride measurements. Many will also include some natural history information that will help you figure out who you are following even with old or indistinct tracks. Look at it before you go out, and focus on wildlife found in your area. The Museum usually uses one produced by local author Lynn Levine 2. Dress for the weather, if you are uncomfortable, you won’t have any fun. A good general rule for outdoor activity in the winter is to dress in layers. This allows you to remove or add clothing to stay comfortable. Remember, sweating is just as dangerous as shivering in winter conditions. 3. Tell someone where you are going or bring some friends along. This can be a great group activity and fun for all ages. 4. Learn about your local wildlife. What the tracks “do” is as important a clue as the number of toes in the track. This will also help you narrow down your options. In Vermont, a large canine track is most likely a domestic dog, not a wolf. Follow it anyway, just to make sure. Now you’re prepared, so go out and start looking! 1. When you start following a track don’t step on them, walk alongside so that if you lose the trail you can go back and more easily pick it up again. Unfortunately, in our experience dogs do not understand this rule and can ruin a tracking outing. Unless your dog is a trained tracker, leaving him at home will make your walk more enjoyable. 2. By looking for specific characteristics in the trail you can quickly narrow down your options for what animal might have left them. a. Look for the track pattern. The body shape of different animals causes them to leave distinctive patterns of tracks. If there is no pattern you might be looking at random snow dropped from the branches of trees or a powerline, look overhead and re-evaluate what you are seeing. b. Look for clear toes, claws, tail drags and other clues and compare them to what you see in the tracking guide. Use multiple tracks when comparing to the guide for more accuracy. c. Guess the animal’s size. You can base that on stride and the size of the print. Compare the depth of the print to your own and to other tracks in the area that you recognize, this will give you an estimation of the animal’s weight. 3. By now you should have it narrowed down to only one or two possible animals even if you can’t see details of the track (step 2.b.). 4. Follow the trail! With a little imagination you can visualize the actions and behaviors of the animal you are following. You will also find more clues along the way. Did it climb a tree or dive into the water? These are examples of actions that should narrow down your options even more. 5. Keep an eye out for additional sign. Droppings, feeding sign, maybe even a glimpse of the animal that you are following will all add to the experience. Tracking is a great activity for many reasons and can continue all year long for those of us who want to take the learning a little further. It helps us to improve our observation skills, attention to detail, problem solving and physical health. Learning about the animals that share the landscape with us is also an important and rewarding activity. If you are uncertain about your woodcraft skills seek out someone who has more experience in the woods to help get you started or check with your local nature center, state fish and wildlife department and environmental educators to find a formal course or workshop near you!

Our fascination with ravens extends deep into history and continues into the present day. Whether depicted as wise or a trickster, an omen of good or one of evil, ravens have enjoyed an important place in human mythology. In reality, Common Ravens are among the most intelligent animals on earth. They appear to have abstract thinking, something researchers previously believed only humans and great apes were capable of. They can plan for the future and can use tools either alone or in collaboration with others. They are able to delay gratification for a greater reward at a later time - something most human children are not capable of until out of toddlerhood. Their intelligence has been likened to that of a four or five-year-old child. Most ravens live their adult lives in bonded pairs and are seen in groups only during their adolescence or when rearing a family. Yet they do exhibit a need for social interaction. When the Museum’s current resident raven Remi lost her enclosure-mate Onyx in 2019, her behavior changed dramatically. Although Remi had previously exhibited comfort with a couple of Museum volunteers, the closing of the facility due to Covid-19 left Remi adrift. Like many humans, her behavior changed in response to her environment. Alone, with no consistent interaction with her caregivers, she became increasingly fearful. She avoided most humans and became very agitated when they entered her enclosure. When left on her own she “paced” in one area, and pecked at a single spot on the wall. A simple change, like enclosure cleaning or freshening her water, caused her to panic dramatically. Her quality of life was going downhill, and intervention was needed. A handful of Museum volunteers got together and created “Team Remi”, forming a plan to work closely with this amazing bird to increase her trust of her caregivers, decrease her nervousness, and most importantly improve her quality of life. Volunteers committed to spending time in Remi’s enclosure daily. During those times volunteers offered Remi enrichment and encouragement - perhaps a food treat or a puzzle to solve, maybe something as simple as hiding food for her to pull from the nooks and crannies in her space, or even just sitting with her and “chatting.” During each session, volunteers recorded their actions and the responses of the bird. In the beginning, around the middle of July, even the entrance of formerly trusted team members would cause Remi to panic, pace and vocalize loudly. Although she would interact briefly with some team members, her behavior as a whole continued to indicate that she was not comfortable. But over a very short time team members were gratified to see small changes - and then much, much bigger ones. Only a little over two months into Team Remi’s intervention plan, Remi is truly a “changed bird”. She engages with volunteers when they are present, taking food from the hands of most of them, and expressing curiosity rather than fear in the goings on in adjacent enclosures. Recent additions of novel items or changes to her space show her to be observant, curious and less fearful. When volunteers are not present with her, she shows every indication of comfort - engaging with her environment on her own, hiding food (called “caching”) for later, grooming herself happily on a perch, or peacefully gazing off into the valley at the 100-mile view. Team Remi is rightly proud of their accomplishment at improving the quality of life of this amazing animal! Remi the Raven joined the Museum's education team after she was found illegally captive in a private home. She had suffered an injury and not been taken to a wildlife rehabilitator, so her injuries healed incorrectly and she is unable to fly or survive in the wild. After being evaluated by a vet and rehabilitation specialist, Fish and Wildlife made the decision to place Remi in a safe place where she could provide education for the public about conserving our natural resources, and the importance of getting animals to a qualified rehabber should they be injured. Remi fills that mission daily at the Museum. Stop in and see this amazing bird and learn more about her, and about all the animals in our care!

What do ancient Egyptians, indigenous North Americans, and Christians around the world have in common? They all share stories and myths involving one of nature’s most valuable predators: the snake. These legless reptiles appear in culture and religion around the globe, fulfilling every role from shape-shifter and tempter to protector and giver of life. They may be viewed as a gateway to immortality, a healer of the land, and a protector of the earth. At Southern Vermont Natural History Museum, we house a number of non-venomous snakes as education ambassadors, including one species native to Vermont, the Eastern Ratsnake (also known as the Black Rat Snake). Ember, our full grown Eastern Ratsnake, was an unwanted pet who was most likely bred in captivity for the pet trade, making her unsuitable for release into the wild. The largest snake species in Vermont, these animals can reach 5 to 6 feet in length when full grown. The longest Eastern Ratsnake thus far recorded in the wild in Vermont measured 75 inches - just over 7 feet - from nose to tail! When full grown they display a thick, strong black body with a white and black checkerboard abdomen that fades to gray towards the tail. Here in Vermont, the juveniles, which measure about 12 inches in length when they hatch, are grayish tan in color with dark blotches. They are sometimes mistaken for the Eastern Milk Snake, another native non-venomous snake. As the Eastern Ratsnake matures, their light grayish tan areas darken, obscuring the pattern of their youth. In the right light, this patterning may still be seen in fully grown snakes, and is often visible in their shed skins. Like all snakes, the Eastern Ratsnake sheds its skin an average of three of times a year. Shedding allows them to lose dead skin cells, parasites, and even some infections that they may have acquired. When daytime temperatures consistently drop below 60 degrees, the Eastern Ratsnake makes its way to a hibernaculum, where they will spend the cooler seasons. Yet these animals do not truly hibernate - they brumate, a similar activity in which their metabolism drops very low, and they snooze away, emerging now and then on warm, sunny days for a quick drink or bite to eat. As the days lengthen and the warmth returns to our region - usually between March and May - Ratsnakes will emerge from their winter dens. They will seek out mates between late May and mid-June. About five weeks after finding a mate the females will lay 12-20 eggs in a warm hollow under a log, or perhaps in an abandoned rodent burrow. Ten weeks later, the young will hatch from their eggs and begin to make their way in the world. Ratsnakes and Their Prey Independent from the time they hatch, the young snakes strike off on their own to find prey suitable for their body size, usually dining on tree frogs, lizards or young mice until they are big enough to tackle larger prey like full sized chipmunks. Using specialized scales on their abdomen they are even able to climb trees to raid the nests of songbirds. A constrictor, the Eastern Ratsnake will wrap coils around its prey and compress it tightly until its heart stops beating. Although many of us were taught that the snake dislocates their jaw to swallow large prey, their mouths really are just much more flexible than our own, with looser ligaments and more joints in their jaw than mammals. This marvelous jaw with its specialized quadrate bones allows them to swallow prey that may even be larger than the width of their head. Since they are non-venomous snakes, they lack the frontal fangs of their venomous cousin the Timber Rattlesnake. Instead, they use rows of specialized backward facing teeth and their muscular bodies like a conveyor belt to pull and push their prey down into their stomach where strong digestive acids break down their meal. They will not strike at something as large as a human unless provoked - we are clearly much too big to be dinner, and are really not worth their energy. Like any wild animal, a snake will bite if harassed, provoked or injured. Although the bite of a non-venomous snake is not usually any worse than a cat scratch, it’s important to give wildlife the space to be wild. The best defense against having a "bad day” with a snake? Let them go on about their business, and you go on about yours! Amazing Adaptations Not aggressive by nature, Eastern Ratsnakes will flatten their head, hiss, coil up and even vibrate their tail creating a rattle-like sound when they feel threatened. But their best defense may be a musk gland located at the base of their tail - the very pungent musk scent mimics the aroma of many poisons found in nature, discouraging a predator from continuing an attack. Snakes use their tongues to “smell” the air around them in their search for prey or to warn them of the presence of danger. Their forked tongue flicks scents into the back of their mouth where a specialized organ called the Jacobson’s organ sits. Lots of animals have a version of this organ, including many mammals - if you have ever seen your pet house cat with their mouth open, huffing lightly to pull surrounding air across their tongue, you have seen the Jacobson’s (or vomeronasal) organ in action! Although we refer to this action as “smelling”, what really takes place is a complex chemical interaction between compounds in the air and specialized parts of the animal’s brain. Venomous vs Poisonous Eleven species of snakes inhabit Vermont, with only one classed as venomous - the Timber Rattlesnake. To help remember the difference between venomous and poisonous it helps to think of them in this way: if something is poisonous, it will hurt me if I eat or touch it - think poison ivy or mistletoe berries. But if something bites or stings me and hurts me (like a honey bee or a black widow spider) then it is venomous, not poisonous. Compared with their ancestors, these rare venomous rattlesnakes now inhabit a small fraction of their original habitat, and have suffered losses of up to 85% of their total peak population across the region. Conservation Status Sadly, a similar fate has followed many other of our native snake species - and four Vermont snake species are considered Species of Greatest Conservation Need: the Eastern Ratsnake, Eastern Ribbonsnake, North American Racer, and Timber Rattlesnake. All snakes in the state of Vermont are considered important, and any sightings of any species should be reported to Vermont Fish and Wildlife. Location of the sighting, pictures from a safe six-foot distance if available, and the date and time of the sighting help researchers and wildlife managers keep track of these vitally important animals. Removed from human interpretation, these reptiles are a necessary part of what keeps our ecosystem in balance. As rodent specialists, we need their presence to help control mouse and rat populations. And as a prey species, snakes provide valuable food sources for other animals, such as hawks and owls, foxes, and raccoons. But the biggest threat to snakes in the wild is not other wildlife - it is us! Wild snake populations face severe challenges, including persecution and poaching for the black market by humans, habitat destruction caused by human expansion and climate change, and sickness in the form of the newly emerging Snake Fungal Disease. First noted in 2006 in a population of closely monitored Timber Rattlesnakes in southern New Hampshire, this rapidly spreading and often lethal infection has now been identified in many reptile species all across the eastern United States. It is believed that the loss of up to 85% of their population has so decreased their genetic diversity that reptiles can no longer fight off this disease as they once might have. Stop by the museum (check website for opening hours) to get an up-close and personal look at our resident Eastern Ratsnake, Ember!

The Southern Vermont Natural History Museum is thrilled to introduce our supporters to what may become our newest education ambassadors. A first for Vermont and for the SVNHM, we are pleased to add Virginia opossum joeys to our education team. We are very excited to be working in close partnership with the state on this pilot program to expand the opportunities for wildlife and conservation education here in Vermont. A passel (the very fun word for a group of opossums) of ten were brought into a rehabilitation facility in northern Vermont after being orphaned when their mother was hit by a car. Seven of the young were successfully reintroduced to the wild. The three remaining animals showed difficulty with walking and climbing. After efforts to restore use of their feet was unsuccessful, it became obvious that their ability to evade their natural predators was severely compromised. Thanks to a cooperative pilot program with Vermont Fish and Wildlife, we are able to offer them a home at the Museum. We continue to work closely with state officials to monitor the wellbeing of these new ambassadors, while providing visitors an up-close look at this nocturnal omnivore. About the size of a house cat when fully grown, opossums are members of the marsupial family. Marsupials are a type of mammal that gives birth to hairless young, about the size of a small jelly bean. After their birth the tiny joeys climb through their mothers’ fur to a pouch located on her abdomen where they continue their maturation. Although an adult female opossum occasionally has as many as 20 babies at one time, it is likely that she will only successfully rear about 8 of those young to maturity. As the young grow, the mother’s pouch becomes full. By about 10 weeks of age the young joeys will leave the pouch, riding on their mother’s back until they are old enough to be on their own. During this time, they learn to find food and avoid predators. By about 4-5 months of age they are ready to leave their mother and begin life on their own. Many things about this animal make them unique in North America. On their rear foot they have an opposable clawless toe called a hallux that works a bit like our thumb, swinging around to help them to grasp tree limbs when climbing. They do not hibernate like some of our mammals but they do limit the amount of time spent out in the open during winter months, as they are subject to frostbite, especially on their feet, tails and ears. In fact, many rehabbers use ear damage as a way to estimate the age of an opossum that comes into their care - the more damage, the older the animal is likely to be. Short lived in the wild, most opossums will only live for a year or two before falling victim to predators, nature, or human and pet activity. In captivity they can live for up to four years. Opossums don’t put much effort into building their own homes and usually will only occupy the same home for a few days at a time before moving on. They prefer to find an abandoned burrow or nest from another species. They will also seek out warm sheltered spaces under structures such as barns or sheds. This habit occasionally puts them into close contact with humans. But don’t fear these nocturnal back yard dwellers! Rabies is extremely rare in opossums, and using their 50 sharp teeth - the most of any mammal in North America - they dine on a steady diet of fruits, insects, snails and small rodents, helping to keep our rodent populations in check. An excellent self-groomer, they also consume up to 95% of the ticks that regularly attach to their bodies and fur, thereby decreasing the number of these disease carrying pests in our wild spaces. For now, staff and volunteers are working hard to learn everything we can about the care of these animals in captivity, and we hope to introduce them to the public soon. We are very grateful to the State of Vermont for the opportunity to work with them on this pilot program that may allow us to expand our educational offerings. We look forward to supporting the state as they consider creating guidelines for future captive mammal permitting, and to this expanded opportunity to further fulfill our mission of educating the public about the important role they can play in wildlife conservation.

The sun has just said a final goodbye with a promise to return in the morning. As you make your way along the peaceful forest periphery, an unusual sound catches your attention - a trilling whinny seems to emanate from a nearby oak tree. You look toward the sound, but see nothing, only a broken branch jutting out next to a hole in the tree’s trunk. But wait. Is that a branch? A pair of bright yellow eyes slowly open in your direction - and the “branch" is revealed to be a small owl, ear tufts erect and no bigger than a pint glass. Spreading its wings, it drops from the tree, glides briefly down, then beats its wings against the evening air to rise up and disappear into the forest. This Eastern Screech Owl has just given you a very rare glimpse into the secretive world that it inhabits. Although common throughout our area, these stealthy predators are rarely seen by most of us - if you have trees around you, you likely have owls! Like most owls, this bird hunts primarily after dusk, perching ten feet or so in a tree and waiting for prey to make their presence known below, then gliding to earth to end a mouse’s evening forage abruptly. Although most of their diet consists of small mammals, earthworms, tadpoles and even small fish are also a likely treat. The Eastern Screech Owl is a generalist when it comes to mealtime, and will even grab a bat or insect on the wing should they be available. Hunting after the sun has set means that this animal relies heavily on exceptional nighttime vision and superb hearing. Although those ear tufts can stand tall on their heads when they are alert, they have nothing to do with hearing. Their two ears are actually located at the upper perimeter of the birds’ facial disk. These tufts are specialized bunches of feathers that can be raised and lowered at will to help the bird blend in with the bark of the trees they live in. Mating pairs of this owl will establish a territory, and will remain with one partner for life unless fate or nature intervene. They occasionally will take a second mate should the first not perform as expected, with the second partner forcing the first off of a nest if need be. Their territory may have multiple nesting sites, although only one is used each year. Like most of our native owls, they do not build or dig a nest hole for themselves, but use holes created in trees by woodpeckers, or nests abandoned by squirrels. A very adaptable bird, they take readily to nest boxes when they are made available. In fact, the suburban screech owl will likely have a longer life than their rural cousins. To encourage the presence of these rodent eaters in your area, consider placing species appropriate nest boxes in spaces with open understory, and keep your land wooded if possible - screech owls cannot survive in the wild without trees! There are many plans for such nest boxes available online - those from audubon.org for example make a fun weekend project. Place nest boxes in winter for best results - most owls begin their house hunting in January or February, with the little screech laying eggs around mid-March. Having those houses in place well ahead of their nest selection time increases the likelihood that they will choose you as their preferred landlord. Although the oldest Eastern Screech Owl recorded in the wild was 14 years of age, they are not likely to live longer than five to seven years. In captivity they fare better, and it is common for them to reach the age of 13 years. Here at SVNHM we have two of these delightful predators living with us each representing a different color pattern, or morph. Soren, our gray morph Eastern Screech Owl, has been with us since 2018. After a stint in raptor rehab, it was determined that Soren could not survive in the wild due to an injury to his left eye. Cedar, our rufous (red) morph screech owl, is one of our more recent arrivals - she came to us in the early spring of 2020. Cedar suffered from an injury to her right wing that makes flight impossible - you may also note during your visit that her right ear tuft doesn’t stand quite as far up as the left. Cedar was found on a lawn under a tree in 2019. A third, intermediate brown color morph is also occasionally seen. Stop by the museum soon to experience these extraordinary animals in person!

Bald eagles are fascinating birds of prey, and here in Vermont we are lucky to have many nesting pairs. However, it hasn’t always been this way! As recent as the year 2000, there were no recorded bald eagles nesting in Vermont. After a recovery effort in the early 2000s of 29 young eagles being reintroduced at Dead Creek Wildlife Management Area (near Addison), they started to spread out. In 2020 the state recorded 41 pairs. How well do you know these birds of prey? Take the quiz and find out! True or false? 1. Ben Franklin questioned the choice of the bald eagle as our national bird. 2. Females and males are the same size. 3. The oldest known bald eagle in the wild was 25 years old. 4. Bald eagles tend to return to the same nest every year. 5. Bald eagles only eat fish. How did you do? 1. Ben Franklin questioned the choice of the bald eagle as our national bird. True. As written in a letter from Ben Franklin to his daughter, “For my own part I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen the Representative of our Country. He is a Bird of bad moral Character. He does not get his Living honestly. You may have seen him perched on some dead Tree near the River, where, too lazy to fish for himself, he watches the Labour of the Fishing Hawk; and when that diligent Bird has at length taken a Fish, and is bearing it to his Nest for the Support of his Mate and young Ones, the Bald Eagle pursues him and takes it from him.” 2. Females and males are the same size. False. Females are 25% larger than males, averaging as much as 12 pounds each. 3. The oldest known bald eagle in the wild was 25 years old. False. The oldest known wild bald eagle in the United States was at least 38 years old. It was struck by a car in 2015, probably while eating roadkill. The reason its age was known is that it was banded in 1977. 4. Bald eagles tend to return to the same nest every year. True. Eagles tend to return to the same nest and nesting territory each year, especially if they successfully produced young at that nest. The average bald eagle nest is 4 to 5 feet in diameter and 2 to 4 feet deep. Each year the adults will add 1 to 2 feet of new material to the nest, meaning some can become extremely large! 5. Bald eagles only eat fish. False. Bald eagles do eat fish for much of their diet, but they also eat waterfowl, shorebirds, small mammals, turtles, and carrion. Juveniles stretch their wings in the nest The next time you visit the Museum, say hi to Stormy and Molly Stark, our two bald eagles! Due to injured wings neither of them can survive in the wild, but they are excellent education ambassadors. * All photos courtesy of Nicki Steel Photography

To get to the other side, of course! But why? Every year across the region thousands of our cold-blooded friends make their way from their upland winter homes to the ponds where they were born. These lowland vernal pools are a specific type of wetland that occurs on a seasonal basis with a defined wet and dry cycle; wet through spring and early summer, then dry for most of the rest of the year. These basin-shaped areas fill with water from rain and spring thaw run-off. Because no fish are usually present within them, and no water flows in or out of them as with a lake or pond, the eggs and young of many amphibian species find safe harbor here. They are usually filled with all the things a young amphibian needs to get a good start in life - such as fairy shrimp, and a host of insect larvae. Wood frog Frogs, newts and salamanders are all members of the group we call amphibians. Amphibians get their name from their unique life cycle that takes place partly on the land (terrestrial) and partly in water (aquatic). Amphibians are vertebrates (have a spine), have smooth, slimy skin, can breathe through their skin, are cold blooded, and have a complex life cycle including a mostly aquatic gill-breathing stage followed by a lung-breathing stage. Unfortunately for the amphibians, we’ve placed our roads right in between the two habitats they need to survive as a species. Moving the roads isn’t a possibility. But we can help these very special animals in other ways by supporting seasonal wetland habitat, monitoring habitats for indications of successful reproduction of species, and even by creating special culverts and tunnels that allow the amphibians to reach their natal pools without the risk of getting run over by vehicles. Wood frog eggs The Big Night As the weather begins to warm and spring rains begin to fall, the migration of amphibians begins. These migratory events occur in what biologists call “The Big Night,” which usually occurs near or on the first warm evening during or shortly after a spring rain. It is a pretty specific culmination of events that triggers the amphibians movement to their breeding pools, so it is nearly impossible to predict with precision. But, if temperatures are above 40 degrees, and it is raining and dark, and it is between March and May, amphibians are probably on the move! The timing of their movements means most of us miss what’s happening right around us - not many will brave rainy, cool spring nights with flashlights in hand to count salamanders. In some years as much as 90% of the migratory amphibian population will make their journey during the first five nights after the first Big Night of the year. Eastern Newt If you miss The Big Night, don’t despair - you can find these amazing animals in vernal ponds throughout the spring and into early June. Finding and identifying the eggs and young of these animals can be accomplished by careful observation with a good resource, such as The Harris Center’s printable PDF guide to identifying amphibian egg masses. Just remember that the best protection is observation - take only pictures and leave only footprints - make notes and drawings of your discoveries such as the location, date and time of your discovery, but leave eggs and young animals in place! Amphibian populations in Vermont are ranked by species according to their known numbers in the wild from S1 (5 or fewer known breeding populations) to S5 (widespread and abundant). Reporting sightings of these fragile animals helps biologists understand how many remain in the wild. While it may be too late for this year, make a plan now to get involved next spring. Be sure to report sightings of amphibians or their eggs and young to a regional conservation organization such as the Vermont Center for Ecostudies or the Vermont Reptile and Amphibian Atlas. You can also check out North Branch Nature Center’s Amphibian Road Crossing project. The Spotted Salamander can live for 20 years and grow to be 9" long. It's rarely seen except during breeding. A mole salamander, they live in tunnels most of the year. The Eastern Newt has four stages of development. The most commonly noticed is the juvenile red eft stage, which can last as long as 8 years! The Spring Peeper is a tiny frog measuring about an inch, featuring a characteristic X on its back. Peepers make a distinctive "peep" noise when calling for mates that many of us associate with the coming of spring. Gray Tree Frogs are masters of camouflage as adults - their gray bodies blend perfectly with tree bark and lichens, but as juveniles they are a delightful bright green color. The Wood Frog spends most of its time in the woods underground, especially in rodent tunnels. Like the Gray Tree Frog and Spring Peeper, it creates an antifreeze-like substance that allows 65% of its body water to be converted to ice during the winter. All photo credits: Michael Clough

Warmer weather has arrived, and with it comes all the joys of spring. Animals are emerging from their winter naps, returning from their southern homes, or just reveling in the sunshine and budding green…it’s baby season in the wild! Often baby birds are a particular source of concern for humans. We place nest boxes in our yards and encourage birds to nest in our landscape. It can be very distressing if we think the babies we’ve encouraged are struggling. But don’t assume that every young bird you encounter is at risk. Birds often learn to fly from the ground, and some species even have adapted special skills that allow them to get back into their nests. Some birds hatch from their shells as nearly independent tiny fluffy versions of their parents! Stages of Development The transition from newly hatched baby to independent adult bird may last weeks or even months and has defined stages. Each stage requires a varying level of parental care and presence. Knowing the various stages of bird development helps to inform people about when - or if - to get involved. Always remember that your best resource is a local licensed wildlife rehabilitation specialist, so when in doubt, give them a shout! When first emerging from their shell, birds are known as hatchlings. Some birds hatch with many intact skills, like wild turkeys or ducklings. They have good control of their bodies, and can walk and even forage as soon as they are dry. These are called “precocial” birds. Other birds like our songbirds and raptors hatch as “altricial” babies. After hatching, altricial birds look nothing like their parents - they often resemble fluffy baby dinosaurs. With eyes usually closed and mouths wide open, they lack control of their bodies, and many have bodies with little to no feathering at all. Altricial hatchling birds need to be in the nest and under the care of their parents at all times. Don’t despair if the parents leave the nest - wide open mouths need to be filled, which often requires both parents to hunt. If you find a hatchling bird on the ground, locate the nest from which it came and do your best to replace the hatchling immediately. It is not true that the smell of your hands will cause the parents to abandon the baby bird. If the nest has been downed, try to find a container about the same size and shape as the original nest - for songbirds this may be as simple as an empty margarine tub with a few drainage holes and twigs and leaf litter in the bottom, or an old easter basket - attach that basket or tub as close to the original nest location as possible, place the babies in it, and move away quickly and quietly. Mom will return as long as that new nest is within about 100 yards of the original location - but the closer to the original nest site, the better. Parents will begin feeding those gaping mouths as soon as they feel safe to do so. For larger birds use laundry-sized baskets that approximate the size of the original nest, always being sure to provide drainage holes. Nestling birds, the next stage of development, is when most feathers have grown in on the body, the baby bird’s eyes will be open, and they will have better body control. Still, they lack the wing and tail feathers needed for flying. If an uninjured nestling bird is on the ground, follow the steps above for re-nesting that baby whenever possible, or contact your local licensed wildlife rehabilitation specialist for assistance and direction. If the nestling bird is a raptor or appears injured, reach out to your rehabber before intervening. Remember, raptors parents and babies possess long sharp talons for catching prey - and those are the very same talons that might end up in you! Although your motives and intentions are pure those wild animals don’t know that, and they will defend themselves as they see fit. The next stage of bird development is the fledgling stage. This the time when birds begin to leave the nest. Humans often misinterpret the new independence of fledglings for distress. Although it’s hard, allow the young bird to develop the skills they need with only parental support. At this stage human intervention usually does more harm than good - we cannot teach a young bird how to fly, hunt, or which predators to avoid, but parent birds can! During this time the baby birds look more like adults, although they may still be a bit unpolished. They may engage in branching behaviors, moving among branches next to the nest area, or they may find themselves on the ground where attentive parents feed them while teaching them to fly and alerting them to dangers. This is a time when young birds are especially vulnerable to domestic pets and human intervention, so if you have baby birds in your yard it is important during this time to keep your distance, and keep pets leashed or inside and well away from fledglings. The final two phases of avian development, juvenile and sub-adult, are marked by increasing independence and usually do not require any intervention from humans. During these stages, final color changes to feathers occur - this is when our Red-Tailed hawks gain their trademark tail, or Bald Eagles molt into that snowy white head. Birds becomes sexually mature at the end of they sub-adult stage, and are ready to find mates and start the cycle of life all over again. Getting Help Sometimes humans encounter baby mammals during hikes, walks, or even in our own backyards. It is important to know how to support wildlife without harming the animals. Most animal parents are very dedicated, and although their parenting styles do not always meet human standards (for example, successful rabbit mothers may leave their unattended bunnies for hours) you can rest assured that in most cases animal parents know exactly what their babies need to become healthy, thriving adults. Should you encounter a young mammal injured or clearly in distress, contact your local wildlife rehabilitation expert or state wildlife agency for guidance. The Humane Society of the United States has excellent online resources for when and how to help commonly found baby animals, and provides links to licensed wildlife rehabilitation facilities in each state. The National Wildlife Federation also has some excellent advice and resources for the public to follow. If you absolutely must pick up an injured or struggling animal there are some general guidelines to follow. Always wear sturdy utility gloves to protect yourself from teeth, claws, talons or beaks. Be very aware of those sharp animal parts, and avoid them. Place a towel over the animal, including over the head, as you gently place the animal in a dark but well-ventilated box. Set the box in a dark, quiet area away from foot traffic - this way you will decrease the amount of stress on the animal which increases their chances for survival. Contact local licensed rehabilitation folks as soon as possible and transfer the animal into their specialized care. In a Nutshell... DO: Seek professional help and advice from a licensed rehabilitation, vet or wildlife expert. Wait and watch from a generous distance for at least 24 hours, unless the baby is a nestling or hatchling bird. Keep domestic pets away from ALL wildlife, but especially away from baby wildlife. DO NOT: Feed any baby animal, bird or mammal. Rush in to rescue a healthy-looking animal. Bring any wild animal or bird into your home as a pet. Helping is one of the things that humans do best, when we are at our best. Learning more about when and how to help - and when to NOT help - our native species is one of the ways that we can participate in the protection of our native wildlife.